Mannequins are commonly used by medical and allied health disciplines to assess clinical competency, such as self-confidence, clinical judgment, interpersonal communication and inter-professional teamwork.
More common to the medical and allied health disciplines are part-task trainers, which utilise anatomical models or computer software models that replicate a specific physical intervention; for instance, a spinal simulator to assess physiotherapy students' ability to perform passive oscillatory movements.
Beaubien, J. The use of simulation for training teamwork skills in health care: how low can you go? Chin, J. Simulation and Gaming 40 4 , Crookall, D. Towards an integration of communication and simulation. Crookall and D. Saunders eds , Communication and simulation: From two fields to one theme. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Decker, S. The evolution of simulation and its contribution to competency. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 39 2 , 74— Freitas, Sara I.
Using Games and Simulations for Supporting Learning. Learning, Media and Technology 31 4 , — Gaba, D. The future of simulation in health care. Quality and Safety in Health Care 13 s1 , i2—i Gredler, M.
Educational games and simulations: A technology in search of a research paradigm. Jonassen ed. New York: Macmillan. Hofstede, G. Why simulation games work—in search of the active substance: A synthesis. Simulation and Gaming 41 6 , — Klassen, K. Journal of Information Technology Education 2. Kolb, A. Academy of Management Learning and Education 4 2 , — Reckien, D. Simulation and Gaming 41 2 , — Russell, C. A systemic framework for managing e-learning adoption in campus universities: individual strategies in an institutional context.
Online role-play environments for higher education. British Journal of Educational Technology 41 6 , — Shute, V. Melding the power of serious games and embedded assessment to monitor and foster learning: Flow and grow. Ritterfeld, M. Cody and P. Vorderer eds , Serious games: Mechanisms and effects pp. If students can learn to appreciate the weaknesses of their performance, they will only benefit. The priority in the mind of the teacher, though, should remain communicative efficacy.
Long feedback sessions of the mistaken use of the present perfect during the role play can be left for another time. The more natural setting of a well set-up role play can also be used to introduce the unpredictability which makes communicating in the real world so daunting for many foreign language learners.
Teachers should seek to mix things up if you feel the simulations and role-plays are becoming too predictable for the class. In more complex simulations the activities of the teacher may be more detailed and student activities may be more defined. The teacher might, for example, explain a handout or have the students read a case study defining the situation, and role play cards which describe the role which the student is to play might be distributed.
Such simulations can be applied to teaching language in many areas, such as technical English Hutchinson and Sawyer-Laucanno, , business and industry Brammer and Sawyer-Laucanno, , and international relations Crookall, However, Kaplan argues against role-plays that focus solely on prescriptive themes emphasizing specific fields of vocabulary, as they do not capture the spontaneous, real-life flow of conversation. The students should help select themes and tasks and provide teachers with details of their learning process.
Burns and Gentry , looking at undergraduates learning experientially, suggest that some have not been exposed to experiences requiring them to be proactive and to make decisions in unfamiliar contexts. They recommend that instructors understand the knowledge level that students bring to the scene, and place close attention to the introduction of experiential exercises so that the student does not become discouraged.
This advice seems even more relevant for L2 learners, who may be from a culture in which teacher-centered classrooms are the rule, and who may have knowledge gaps that make a simulation difficult and threatening. Teacher roles The teacher defines the general structure of the role play, but generally does not actively participate once the structure is set.
To quote Jones , " Rather than a traditional, teacher- centered classroom structure, the teacher keeps a relatively low profile and students are free to interact with each other spontaneously. This reduces student anxiety and facilitates learning. In particular, the teacher must keep learners motivated by stimulating their curiosity and keeping the material relevant, creating a "tension to learn" Burns and Gentry, Role of instructional materials As simulations represent real-world scenarios, materials should simulate the materials that would be used in the real world.
For example, blocks or sugar cubes can be employed in simulating a construction task. In the "extraterrestrial" role play mentioned above, toothbrushes, watches, lightbulbs and keys can be examined by the "aliens. The simulation centers around the presentation of a buffet luncheon for native speakers of French in the Washington area. The students plan and host the luncheon, interact with French speakers during the luncheon, and meet with the guests afterwards in a debriefing session. Written self-assessment observations and evaluations of this simulation were very favorable, students stating that the activity boosted their confidence in speaking French.
One problem in instructional materials is what Skehan a calls the "conspiracy of uniformity" which publishers have created. The "design competition" simulation discussed above is one way to avoid this problem by adapting material to the needs of individual learners. Simulations designed by students themselves can be used in both their class and future classes. Ladousse views procedure as one of 11 factors in role plays.
These factors are: level, time, aim, language, organization, preparation, warm-up, procedure, follow-up, remarks and variations. Various role playing exercises are then described in terms of these factors.
Level indicates the minimum and sometimes maximum level at which the activity can be carried out. Time may depend on whether students need to read articles, reports, etc. Aim indicates the broader objective of each activity, such as developing confidence or becoming sensitive to concepts expressed in language.
Language indicates the language the students will need, such as structures, functions, different skills, work with register, or intonation patterns. Organization describes whether the activity involves pair work or group work, and in the latter case, how many students should be in each group. Preparation indicates anything that needs to be done before class.
Warm-up involves ideas to focus the students' attention and get them interested. Procedure involves a step-by-step guide to the activity. Richards , for example, recommends a six step procedure for role playing: preliminary activity, a model dialogue, learning to perform the role play with the help of role cards, listening to recordings of native speakers performing the role play with role cards, follow-up, and repeating the sequence.
Follow-up indicates activities that are done after the activity, perhaps as homework. Remarks may be of general interest or may be warnings about special difficulties that may arise. Variations can be used with different types of classes or different levels. Students are expected to read, write, reflect, discuss and actively participate in higher-order thinking tasks such as application, analysis, evaluation and synthesis.
Active learning can work in almost any setting and takes many forms, from briefly structured discussions that require minimal planning to high-stakes assignments that might be done in stages and require intensive planning. Some effective active learning strategies include questioning, discussion, drama, debates, demonstrations, role play and simulation, experimentation, and peer teaching and learning.
What makes simulations different from the other active learning experiences outlines above? Simulations are different for several reasons.
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